Pacific War, the Early Years |
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Military aircraft changed to all metal, monoplanes by 1934. The
Navy was the last to convert because of the feeling that a biplane had an extra
wing for lift in carrier takeoffs, greater load carrying, slower
landing speeds, and greater maneuverability in combat. The change was
forced on the Navy in the trials of 1936 where the single wing Brewster entry
outperformed the traditional two wing design submitted by Grumman.
The Brewster F2A Buffalo monoplane fighter entered fleet service December 1939. Grumman F3F biplanes continued in front line, carrier service until Oct 1941.
| Navy Fighting Aircraft | |
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| Boeing F3B (1928-32) | Grumman F3F (1936-1941) |
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| Brewster F2A Buffalo (1939-42) | Grumman F4F Wildcat (1940-1945) |
| Japanese Fighting Aircraft | |
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| Mitsubishi A5M Claude 1937-1942 | Mitsubishi A6M Zero (Zeke) 1940-1945 |
Brewster was the competition to keep the main supplier on their toes. They were awarded a contract, but many planes were diverted to other countries and few entered U.S. service. The plane landed fast and carrier deck handling had to adapt to the new characteristics. The Brewster undercarriage did not stand up well to the repeated "controlled crash" of arrester landings on the deck of a carrier. In fact, some were transferred ashore for their training to assure that a sufficient number of fighters remained available in case war came.
Grumman company mobilized their engineering department and was allowed to remove the top wing of their F4F entry to gain the speed exhibited by the Brewster and was awarded a contract for 78 aircraft while the next order for the upstart Brewster airplane was reduced .
The adaptation of carriers to a high performance, single-wing carrier fighter was learned on the Brewster design. Those who favor no change have every opportunity to show that any new plane compares unfavorably with aspects of the old and familiar.. Every point of a new design that needs modification or continuing developmental work can be touted as a flaw. The government allotted the largest portions of the Brewster contract to other countries while the US Navy adjusted.
Many writers correctly state the F2A was outclassed by the Zero. This leads many readers assume that the airplane was flawed and that we should have used other designs. The correct answer is that the Zero outclassed every fighter in the world in 1941-42. There is little inherently wrong with the F2A. In fact, this naval design fought well in the services of other countries.
Export orders were accepted for 170 for England, where it was named the Buffalo; 40 for Belgium (delivered to the British); and 100 for the Dutch. All fought in the Far East.
Finland was attacked by Russia in 1939 : 44 Brewsters were sent in March- April 1940 to aid against the unprovoked attack by the Bolsheviks. (The Russians wanted a defensible border around Leningrad.) The Brewsters became operational June 1941 and destroyed 489 aircraft for a loss of 16 of their own, none to air combat. The Brewsters continued in service until 1944. Finland had to attach itself to the nearest enemy of Russia, which was Germany, and the Finns shifted to Messerschmitts and became tied to the German side of the European War.
In service with the Dutch in the East Indies, the Brewsters, as with the Army's Hawks, were mostly destroyed on the ground. But even when able to get into the air, the F2A's, P-36's and P-40's were no match for the performance of the Zero and the experience of their pilots.
The F4F Wildcat is remembered in its later models and after training and tactics were developed to counter the Zero. The first Zero was not shot down by a Grumman F4F until 7May42 (although a German plane was shot down by an F4F in the British Fleet Air Arm in December 1940.) We were stuck with this equally inadequate performer until mid-1943 (The pilot had to crank the wheels up by hand after takeoff from the carrier and to crank them back down again to land after combat.) If at sufficient height, the heavier American types could dive away from the fight; at low altitudes, the Zero could climb away and return in a dive. Many early losses of brave men were because they tried to dog-fight a Zero. Defensive tactics such as the Thatch Weave and offensive tactics of radar assistance to maneuver to intercept from out of the sun with a diving attack, a single pass, and a continued dive away.
Originally, fighters, scout-bombers, and torpedo planes were assigned in equal numbers to a carrier. This did not allow sufficient fighters to both cover the bombers in an attack and to provide defensive combat air patrols over the carriers. The number of fighters assigned to carriers was doubled after the Battle of the Coral Sea and tripled after Midway as understanding of the carrier's place in the war was revealed.
The Grumman F4F Wildcat is best remembered as the parent of the F6F Hellcat which did outperform the Zero and was the premier navy fighter for the second half of the Pacific War -- the winning half. The Vought F4U Corsair replaced the Grumman Hellcat only in the final weeks of the war where its greater speed alone was the requirement to intercept Kamikazes.
| Naval Fighters in Last Half of Pacific War | |
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| Grumman F6F Hellcat (1943-1945+) | Vought F4U Corsair (1943-1953+) |
7. The Zero came on the scene in Japan's war in China unnoticed by the US. Outstanding Japanese pilots were trained and developed their tactics in actual combat. The Zero was the best fighter in existence in 1941-42 for the work to be done in the Pacific, bar none. No airplane could stand up to it in a dog fight at sea level. The Zero decimated Hawker Hurricanes defending Singapore and they destroyed a squadron of Spitfire's in Ceylon.
8. In British service, the Brewster was christened "Buffalo" and was shown to outmaneuver the Spitfire, the premier allied airplane in Europe. However, the European air war took place at high altitudes, whereas American fighters were not even equipped with working oxygen systems for fighting at those altitudes.
9. Authors often characterize the Buffalo by its stubby silhouette calling it a flying barrow. But compare the form with the function. Today we expect to see long sleek jet aircraft. The optimal airplane of the 1930s was a radial engine with guns -- there was no reason to have excessive length. The sleeker designs had in-line engines, water cooled and the subject of much discussion for suitability for combat use vs. the air cooled radial -- to wit, the Mustang vs. Thunderbolt of later in the war. Naval designs were all radials. Compare with the race-winning BeeGee. The short body made the Buffalo fast responding in maneuver, but also unstable for new pilots. Some measurements with the Wildcat.
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| Brewster F2A | Grumman F4F-3 | Seversky P-35 | |
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| Length | 26'- 4" | 28'- 9" | 26' 10" |
| Height | 12'- 1" | 9'- 2" | 9' 9" |
| Wing Span | 35' | 38' | 36' 1" |
| Weight | 4,723 | 5,758 | 4,575 |
Seversky P-35s fought at Pearl Harbor (two kills, 1 downed) and in the first days of the Philippines where only 8 of 48 survived the first two days of action. Curtiss P-36s Mohawks and P-40 Kittyhawks were also overwhelmed.
Naval designs have to be heavier than their army counterparts to stand the rigors of carrier landings. Typically, naval designs have shorter range -- they take their air fields with them -- and to equip them for multi-purpose roles. The Army's newer P-40 Warhawk when compared to the Navy's newer F4F-3 Wildcat show that the Army progressed while the Navy regressed in the period provided for war preparation from the start of War in Europe until Pearl Harbor.
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| Grumman F4F-3 Wildcat | Curtiss P-40B Kittyhawk | |
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| Contract | 8Aug39 | 27Apr39 |
| Max Speed | 318 | 343 |
| Cruising Speed | 249 | 245 |
| Range | 770 | 610 |
| Ceiling | 39,400 | 31,000 |
| Guns | 4-.50 | 4-.30 |
| Bomb Load | 200 | 1,500 |
The P-40 was not a new design, it was a re-engined P-36 Mohawk, but it was available while designs that became famous later were still under development. In April 1939 the Army placed order for 550 P-40's, of 14,000 to be built during the war. Several P-40's defended at Pearl Harbor and five pilots were credited with downing 8 bombers, while 5 P-36 downed 2 Zeros with one Mohawk lost. The Army's P-40 could equal the Zero in a high speed, high altitude fight. The Zero and Navy planes were optimized for low level flying. The Spitfire defended over Darwin in February 1942 ; 17 of 27 were downed by Zeros in the two raids. Nine P-40's also went down.
| Also Fought Zeros in Asiatic Fleet Theater | |
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| Boeing P-26 Pea-shooter | P-36 Mohawk |
| [pic] | [pic] |
| Hawker Hurricane | Submarine Spitfire |
Four British Commonwealth squadrons were given 52 unassembled Buffaloes to defend Singapore. None had seen the plane before. Assembly was slow. Once in the air, there were problems with radios and guns. Assembly and flight manuals had arrived in the crates, but not maintenance manuals. When Singapore was attacked on Dec 8, the inexperienced pilots with their new planes were target practice for Zeros, but then, the Commonwealth pilots also had trouble with older Japanese Claude fighters with fixed landing gear. More Buffaloes and new Hurricanes were shipped in as replacements and again, were chewed up. When the RAF rose to meet Zeros in Ceylon, 32 Spitfires defended, 24 were lost. Never-the-less, three Buffalo pilots became aces.
The fact was, the Brewster was an advancement over what the Navy had and everything we had was inferior to the Zero. Training for the new features, specially in the Eastern nations, took time to learn -- retractable landing gear, variable pitch propellers and flaps. Design features were also gradually learned. Armor and self-sealing fuel tanks were introduced based upon European experience. More guns and heavier calibers were introduced. Drop tanks added range.
When the familiar Grumman design was reintroduced in 1940, the Navy had already adjusted to the new requirements of a single wing fighter.
Several factors won the air war in the Pacific.
Japan did not plan on a long war, rather they intended to to quickly knock out opposition (USA at Pearl Harbor and Philippines, the British at Singapore and Ceylon, and the Dutch in the East Indies), and to capture what they needed for raw materials and bases for a defensive perimeter. They did accomplish all of their goals, and in only five months, but failed in the diplomatic front where they expected the Allies to seek peace with no serious counter-blows.
The Japanese, strangely, did not have an extensive pilot training program. They did not have an active aircraft development program ready to replace the Zero until it was too late. Aircraft production could not match American industry. When 7,000 Japanese aircraft and most of their aircrew's were destroyed in 1942-43, they were unable to replace the experienced pilots or to field improved planes.
America established a pilot training program the week after Pearl Harbor of 2,500 students per month. Navy fighter aircraft production expanded to over 6,000 of the improving Wildcat, and later, over 12,000 superior Hellcats and at the same time over 12,000 Corsairs. The army introduced the P-38 Lightning and P-51 Mustang. Training capped the advantage to the Americans, where the performance of fighters is directly related to pilot training -- the US could afford training expense, where there was enough time, and could devote training material (fuel, ammo, maintenance) that the chronically short Japanese could not.
Of course, this was after the war started. Before the war, there were depression era budgetary constraints. Bob Scott, an ace in China/Burma, author of God is My CoPilot, was once criticized for personally shooting up the squadron's entire monthly allotment of ammunition in one day while training in ground strafing. Dog fighting practice among themselves taught weaknesses of ones own planes, but was inadequate preparation for learning to fight the characteristics of enemy aircraft.
Brewster as a company was the major problem with the F2A. They were a supplier of aircraft parts when they decided to design and compete for a new Navy scout bomber. Their single wing, 3-man SBA scout bomber eventually entered service in 1940. This successful design was adapted to enter the fighter competitions of 1936 were they again won.
The small company had troubles growing to produce the awarded contracts, most of the F2A work was done by the Naval Aircraft Factory in Philadelphia. The Brewster management allowed itself to be controlled by its union. Production dates were always in danger as the union walked out frequently and for trivial reasons. The Navy could not allow the lives of its fighting men be subjected to the whims of delivery when a known reliable supplier was available.
The militant union leader Tom De Lorenzo is quoted as:
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"Our policy is not to win the war at any cost. The policy of our
Local Union is to win the war without sacrificing too many of the
rights which we have at the present time. ... If I had brothers
at the front who needed the 10 or 12 planes that were sacrificed
[during a recent strike], I'd let them die, if necessary, to
preserve our way of life or rights or whatever you want to call it."
Brewster union
"Don't You Know There's a War On" by Richard R. Lingeman
(We will leave the exposure of him to others; we can hope he was incarcerated for the duration plus 30 years and was preyed upon by inmates during the whole time. More likely, his story could become that of the misunderstood hero of a Hollywood film.)
There were three models used by the USN. F2A-1 had a 950 hp engine, had a weak undercarriage, but fought exceptionally well as a land-based fighter. The short body made for fast maneuvering, but was unstable in unskilled hands. F2A-2 installed a larger engine, 1,200 hp. F2A-3 had armor, self-sealing gas tanks and a lengthened nose, all of which added weight which reduced performance. Several other Buffalo models, lighter, land based fighters, were used by foreign purchasers
Brewster Corp introduced an upgraded scout bomber, the SB2A Buccaneer, but that was their last design; it was soon surpassed by designs of others. Production at Brewster was taken over by the government for a month in 1942. Brewster facilities were used to produce 735 of the Vought F4U Corsairs (as the F3A) before the company ceased aircraft production altogether in 1944.
The Brewster F2A fighter was the best U.S. naval fighter of its year, in a period when rapid development was required. The company could not keep up with needs. An improved Brewster, like the improved Grumman, might have developed into a war winning fighter. That is not the way things worked out, but do not accept the myth that the Buffalo was a bad plane.
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About this page: Brewster - About the F2A Buffalo and other naval aircraft of the first year of the Pacific War Last updated on December 7, 2002
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